Philosopher Philosophical Ideas Books
33. Socrates
34. Plato
35. Aristotle
36. Define Oracle
37. Greek God = God of...
Zeus
Hera
Aphrodite
Athena
Poseidon
Hades
Apollo
Demeter
Ares
Friday, October 1, 2010
Thursday, September 30, 2010
Greek Questions
22. Why did democracy develop in Greek city-states?
23. What brought Greeks into contact with Persians?
24. Name Persian leaders.
25. How did Greeks win the Persian War?
26. What led to the Peloponnesian War?
27. What were the effects of the Peloponnesian War?
28. Economy was based on...
29. Role of woman...
30. What changes did Pericles bring to Greece?
31. Define Rhetoric
Define Ethics
23. What brought Greeks into contact with Persians?
24. Name Persian leaders.
25. How did Greeks win the Persian War?
26. What led to the Peloponnesian War?
27. What were the effects of the Peloponnesian War?
28. Economy was based on...
29. Role of woman...
30. What changes did Pericles bring to Greece?
31. Define Rhetoric
Define Ethics
Tuesday, September 28, 2010
GREEKS Section 2 of the Blue Book World History
Greek villages gradually expanded and became independent city-states. The Greek historian Plutarch related how one of these city-states—Sparta—educated its young boys:
As soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play together. Of these, he who showed the most courage was made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience.
—The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Plutarch, J. Dryden and A. H. Clouth, trans., 1992
It is no surprise that the Spartan city-state became known for its military prowess.
The Polis: Center of Greek Life
By 750 B.C., the city-state—or what the Greeks called a polis—became the central focus of Greek life. Our word politics is derived from the Greek word polis. In a physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, or even a village, along with its surrounding countryside. The town, city, or village served as the center of the polis where people could meet for political, social, and religious activities.
The main gathering place in the polis was usually a hill. At the top of the hill was a fortified area called an acropolis. The acropolis served as a place of refuge during an attack and sometimes came to be a religious center on which temples and public buildings were built. Below the acropolis was an agora, an open area that served as a place where people could assemble and as a market.
City-states varied greatly in size, from a few square miles to a few hundred square miles. They also varied in population. Athens had a population of more than three hundred thousand by the fifth century B.C., but most city-states were much smaller, consisting of only a few hundred to several thousand people.
The polis was, above all, a community of people who shared a common identity and common goals. As a community, the polis consisted of citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens with no political rights (women and children), and noncitizens (slaves and resident aliens).
Citizens of a polis had rights, but these rights were coupled with responsibilities. The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that a citizen did not belong just to himself or herself: "We must rather regard every citizen as belonging to the state." However, the loyalty that citizens had to their city-states had a negative side. City-states distrusted one another, and the division of Greece into fiercely patriotic independent units helped to bring about its ruin.
As the polis developed, so too did a new military system. In earlier times, wars in Greece had been fought by aristocratic cavalry soldiers—nobles on horseback. These aristocrats, who were large landowners, also dominated the political life of their city-states. By 700 B.C., however, the military system was based on hoplites, who were heavily armed infantry soldiers, or foot soldiers. Each carried a round shield, a short sword, and a thrusting spear about nine feet (2.7 m) long.
Hoplites went into battle as a unit, marching shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formation known as a phalanx. This close formation created a wall of shields to protect the hoplites. As long as they kept their order, it was difficult for enemies to harm them.
Greek Colonies
Between 750 and 550 B.C., large numbers of Greeks left their homeland to settle in distant lands. A desire for good farmland and the growth of trade were two important factors in the people's decisions to move. Each colony became a new polis. This new polis was usually independent of the polis that had founded it.
Across the Mediterranean, new Greek colonies were established along the coastlines of southern Italy, southern France, eastern Spain, and northern Africa west of Egypt. At the same time, to the north the Greeks set up colonies in Thrace, where they sought good farmland to grow grains. The Greeks also settled along the shores of the Black Sea, setting up cities on the Hellespont and the Bosporus. The most notable of these cities was Byzantium (buh•ZAN•tee•uhm), the site of what later became Constantinople (now Istanbul). In establishing these colonies, the Greeks spread their culture and political ideas throughout the Mediterranean.
Colonization also led to increased trade and industry. The Greeks on the mainland exported pottery, wine, and olive oil. In return, they received grains and metals from the west and fish, timber, wheat, metals, and slaves from the Black Sea region.
The expansion of trade and industry created a new group of wealthy individuals in many of the Greek city-states. These men wanted political power, but found it difficult to gain because of the power of the ruling aristocrats.
Tyranny in the City-States
The creation of this new group of rich men fostered the rise of tyrants in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. Tyrants were not necessarily oppressive or wicked, as our word tyrant implies. Greek tyrants were rulers who seized power by force from the aristocrats. Support for the tyrants came not only from the new rich who had made their money in trade and industry, but also from poor peasants who were in debt to landholding aristocrats. Both the rich and the peasants were tired of aristocratic domination of their city-states.
The tyrants gained power and kept it by using hired soldiers. Once in power, they built new marketplaces, temples, and walls. These constructions glorified the city but, more importantly, increased the tyrants' popularity. Despite their achievements, however, tyrants had fallen out of favor by the end of the sixth century B.C. Greeks believed in the rule of law, and tyranny was an insult to that ideal.
Although tyranny did not last, it played an important role in Greek history. The rule of the tyrants had ended the rule of the aristocrats in many city-states. The end of tyranny then allowed many new people to participate in government. In some Greek city-states, this led to the development of democracy, which is government by the people or rule of the many. Other city-states remained committed to government by an oligarchy, rule by the few. The differences in how Greek city-states were governed can be understood by examining the two most famous and most powerful Greek city-states, Sparta and Athens.
Sparta
Like other Greek city-states, Sparta was faced with the need for more land. Instead of sending its people out to start new colonies, as some states did, the Spartans conquered the neighboring Laconians. Later, beginning around 730 B.C., the Spartans undertook the conquest of neighboring Messenia despite its larger size and population.
After their conquest, the Messenians and Laconians became serfs and were made to work for the Spartans. These captured people were known as helots, a name derived from a Greek word for "capture." To ensure control over the conquered helots, the Spartans made a conscious decision to create a military state.
A Military State Between 800 and 600 B.C., the lives of Spartans were rigidly organized and tightly controlled (thus, our word spartan, meaning "highly self-disciplined"). Males spent their childhood learning military discipline. Then they enrolled in the army for regular military service at age 20. Although allowed to marry, they continued to live in the military barracks until age 30. All meals were eaten in public dining halls with fellow soldiers. Meals were simple; the famous Spartan black broth consisted of a piece of pork boiled in animal blood, salt, and vinegar. A visitor who ate some of the black broth once remarked that he now understood why Spartans were not afraid to die. At 30, Spartan males were allowed to vote in the assembly (to be discussed later) and live at home, but they stayed in the army until the age of 60.
While their husbands lived in the barracks, Spartan women lived at home. Because of this separation, Spartan women had greater freedom of movement and greater power in the household than was common elsewhere in Greece. Spartan women were expected to exercise and remain fit to bear and raise healthy children.
Many Spartan women upheld the strict Spartan values, expecting their husbands and sons to be brave in war. The story is told of a Spartan woman who, as she was handing her son his shield, told him to come back carrying his shield or being carried on it.
Government of Sparta The Spartan government was an oligarchy headed by two kings, who led the Spartan army on its campaigns. A group of five men, known as the ephors (EH•fuhrs), were elected each year and were responsible for the education of youth and the conduct of all citizens. A council of elders, composed of the two kings and 28 citizens over the age of 60, decided on the issues that would be presented to an assembly made up of male citizens. This assembly did not debate; it only voted on the issues.
To make their new military state secure, the Spartans turned their backs on the outside world. Foreigners, who might have brought in new ideas, were discouraged from visiting. Except for military reasons, Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, where they might encounter ideas dangerous to the stability of the state. Likewise, Spartan citizens were discouraged from studying philosophy, literature, or the arts—subjects that might encourage new thoughts. The art of war was the Spartan ideal. All other arts were frowned upon.
Athens
By 700 B.C., Athens had become a unified polis on the peninsula of Attica. Early Athens was ruled by a king. By the seventh century B.C., however, Athens had become an oligarchy under the control of its aristocrats. These aristocrats owned the best land and controlled political life. There was an assembly of all the citizens, but it had few powers.
Near the end of the seventh century B.C., Athens faced political turmoil because of serious economic problems. Many Athenian farmers were sold into slavery when they were unable to repay their debts to their aristocratic neighbors. Over and over, there were cries to cancel the debts and give land to the poor. Athens seemed on the verge of civil war.
The ruling Athenian aristocrats reacted to this crisis in 594 B.C. by giving full power to Solon, a reform-minded aristocrat. Solon canceled all land debts and freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts. He refused, however, to take land from the rich and give it to the poor.
Solon's reforms, though popular, did not solve the problems of Athens. Aristocrats were still powerful, and poor peasants could not obtain land. Internal strife finally led to the very thing Solon had hoped to avoid—tyranny.
Pisistratus (pih•SIHS•truh•tuhs), an aristocrat, seized power in 560 B.C. He then aided Athenian trade as a way of pleasing the merchants. He also gave aristocrats' land to the peasants in order to gain the favor of the poor.
The Athenians rebelled against Pisistratus's son, who had succeeded him, and ended the tyranny in 510 B.C. Two years later, with the backing of the Athenian people, Cleisthenes (KLYS•thuh•neez), another reformer, gained the upper hand.
Cleisthenes created a new council of five hundred that supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury, and proposed the laws that would be voted on by the assembly. The Athenian assembly, composed of male citizens, was given final authority to pass laws after free and open debate. Because the assembly of citizens now had the central role in the Athenian political system, the reforms of Cleisthenes created the foundations for Athenian democracy.
As soon as they were seven years old they were to be enrolled in certain companies and classes, where they all lived under the same order and discipline, doing their exercises and taking their play together. Of these, he who showed the most courage was made captain; they had their eyes always upon him, obeyed his orders, and underwent patiently whatsoever punishment he inflicted; so that the whole course of their education was one continued exercise of a ready and perfect obedience.
—The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, Plutarch, J. Dryden and A. H. Clouth, trans., 1992
It is no surprise that the Spartan city-state became known for its military prowess.
The Polis: Center of Greek Life
By 750 B.C., the city-state—or what the Greeks called a polis—became the central focus of Greek life. Our word politics is derived from the Greek word polis. In a physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, or even a village, along with its surrounding countryside. The town, city, or village served as the center of the polis where people could meet for political, social, and religious activities.
The main gathering place in the polis was usually a hill. At the top of the hill was a fortified area called an acropolis. The acropolis served as a place of refuge during an attack and sometimes came to be a religious center on which temples and public buildings were built. Below the acropolis was an agora, an open area that served as a place where people could assemble and as a market.
City-states varied greatly in size, from a few square miles to a few hundred square miles. They also varied in population. Athens had a population of more than three hundred thousand by the fifth century B.C., but most city-states were much smaller, consisting of only a few hundred to several thousand people.
The polis was, above all, a community of people who shared a common identity and common goals. As a community, the polis consisted of citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens with no political rights (women and children), and noncitizens (slaves and resident aliens).
Citizens of a polis had rights, but these rights were coupled with responsibilities. The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that a citizen did not belong just to himself or herself: "We must rather regard every citizen as belonging to the state." However, the loyalty that citizens had to their city-states had a negative side. City-states distrusted one another, and the division of Greece into fiercely patriotic independent units helped to bring about its ruin.
As the polis developed, so too did a new military system. In earlier times, wars in Greece had been fought by aristocratic cavalry soldiers—nobles on horseback. These aristocrats, who were large landowners, also dominated the political life of their city-states. By 700 B.C., however, the military system was based on hoplites, who were heavily armed infantry soldiers, or foot soldiers. Each carried a round shield, a short sword, and a thrusting spear about nine feet (2.7 m) long.
Hoplites went into battle as a unit, marching shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formation known as a phalanx. This close formation created a wall of shields to protect the hoplites. As long as they kept their order, it was difficult for enemies to harm them.
Greek Colonies
Between 750 and 550 B.C., large numbers of Greeks left their homeland to settle in distant lands. A desire for good farmland and the growth of trade were two important factors in the people's decisions to move. Each colony became a new polis. This new polis was usually independent of the polis that had founded it.
Across the Mediterranean, new Greek colonies were established along the coastlines of southern Italy, southern France, eastern Spain, and northern Africa west of Egypt. At the same time, to the north the Greeks set up colonies in Thrace, where they sought good farmland to grow grains. The Greeks also settled along the shores of the Black Sea, setting up cities on the Hellespont and the Bosporus. The most notable of these cities was Byzantium (buh•ZAN•tee•uhm), the site of what later became Constantinople (now Istanbul). In establishing these colonies, the Greeks spread their culture and political ideas throughout the Mediterranean.
Colonization also led to increased trade and industry. The Greeks on the mainland exported pottery, wine, and olive oil. In return, they received grains and metals from the west and fish, timber, wheat, metals, and slaves from the Black Sea region.
The expansion of trade and industry created a new group of wealthy individuals in many of the Greek city-states. These men wanted political power, but found it difficult to gain because of the power of the ruling aristocrats.
Tyranny in the City-States
The creation of this new group of rich men fostered the rise of tyrants in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. Tyrants were not necessarily oppressive or wicked, as our word tyrant implies. Greek tyrants were rulers who seized power by force from the aristocrats. Support for the tyrants came not only from the new rich who had made their money in trade and industry, but also from poor peasants who were in debt to landholding aristocrats. Both the rich and the peasants were tired of aristocratic domination of their city-states.
The tyrants gained power and kept it by using hired soldiers. Once in power, they built new marketplaces, temples, and walls. These constructions glorified the city but, more importantly, increased the tyrants' popularity. Despite their achievements, however, tyrants had fallen out of favor by the end of the sixth century B.C. Greeks believed in the rule of law, and tyranny was an insult to that ideal.
Although tyranny did not last, it played an important role in Greek history. The rule of the tyrants had ended the rule of the aristocrats in many city-states. The end of tyranny then allowed many new people to participate in government. In some Greek city-states, this led to the development of democracy, which is government by the people or rule of the many. Other city-states remained committed to government by an oligarchy, rule by the few. The differences in how Greek city-states were governed can be understood by examining the two most famous and most powerful Greek city-states, Sparta and Athens.
Sparta
Like other Greek city-states, Sparta was faced with the need for more land. Instead of sending its people out to start new colonies, as some states did, the Spartans conquered the neighboring Laconians. Later, beginning around 730 B.C., the Spartans undertook the conquest of neighboring Messenia despite its larger size and population.
After their conquest, the Messenians and Laconians became serfs and were made to work for the Spartans. These captured people were known as helots, a name derived from a Greek word for "capture." To ensure control over the conquered helots, the Spartans made a conscious decision to create a military state.
A Military State Between 800 and 600 B.C., the lives of Spartans were rigidly organized and tightly controlled (thus, our word spartan, meaning "highly self-disciplined"). Males spent their childhood learning military discipline. Then they enrolled in the army for regular military service at age 20. Although allowed to marry, they continued to live in the military barracks until age 30. All meals were eaten in public dining halls with fellow soldiers. Meals were simple; the famous Spartan black broth consisted of a piece of pork boiled in animal blood, salt, and vinegar. A visitor who ate some of the black broth once remarked that he now understood why Spartans were not afraid to die. At 30, Spartan males were allowed to vote in the assembly (to be discussed later) and live at home, but they stayed in the army until the age of 60.
While their husbands lived in the barracks, Spartan women lived at home. Because of this separation, Spartan women had greater freedom of movement and greater power in the household than was common elsewhere in Greece. Spartan women were expected to exercise and remain fit to bear and raise healthy children.
Many Spartan women upheld the strict Spartan values, expecting their husbands and sons to be brave in war. The story is told of a Spartan woman who, as she was handing her son his shield, told him to come back carrying his shield or being carried on it.
Government of Sparta The Spartan government was an oligarchy headed by two kings, who led the Spartan army on its campaigns. A group of five men, known as the ephors (EH•fuhrs), were elected each year and were responsible for the education of youth and the conduct of all citizens. A council of elders, composed of the two kings and 28 citizens over the age of 60, decided on the issues that would be presented to an assembly made up of male citizens. This assembly did not debate; it only voted on the issues.
To make their new military state secure, the Spartans turned their backs on the outside world. Foreigners, who might have brought in new ideas, were discouraged from visiting. Except for military reasons, Spartans were not allowed to travel abroad, where they might encounter ideas dangerous to the stability of the state. Likewise, Spartan citizens were discouraged from studying philosophy, literature, or the arts—subjects that might encourage new thoughts. The art of war was the Spartan ideal. All other arts were frowned upon.
Athens
By 700 B.C., Athens had become a unified polis on the peninsula of Attica. Early Athens was ruled by a king. By the seventh century B.C., however, Athens had become an oligarchy under the control of its aristocrats. These aristocrats owned the best land and controlled political life. There was an assembly of all the citizens, but it had few powers.
Near the end of the seventh century B.C., Athens faced political turmoil because of serious economic problems. Many Athenian farmers were sold into slavery when they were unable to repay their debts to their aristocratic neighbors. Over and over, there were cries to cancel the debts and give land to the poor. Athens seemed on the verge of civil war.
The ruling Athenian aristocrats reacted to this crisis in 594 B.C. by giving full power to Solon, a reform-minded aristocrat. Solon canceled all land debts and freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts. He refused, however, to take land from the rich and give it to the poor.
Solon's reforms, though popular, did not solve the problems of Athens. Aristocrats were still powerful, and poor peasants could not obtain land. Internal strife finally led to the very thing Solon had hoped to avoid—tyranny.
Pisistratus (pih•SIHS•truh•tuhs), an aristocrat, seized power in 560 B.C. He then aided Athenian trade as a way of pleasing the merchants. He also gave aristocrats' land to the peasants in order to gain the favor of the poor.
The Athenians rebelled against Pisistratus's son, who had succeeded him, and ended the tyranny in 510 B.C. Two years later, with the backing of the Athenian people, Cleisthenes (KLYS•thuh•neez), another reformer, gained the upper hand.
Cleisthenes created a new council of five hundred that supervised foreign affairs, oversaw the treasury, and proposed the laws that would be voted on by the assembly. The Athenian assembly, composed of male citizens, was given final authority to pass laws after free and open debate. Because the assembly of citizens now had the central role in the Athenian political system, the reforms of Cleisthenes created the foundations for Athenian democracy.
GREEKS Section 1 of the Blue Book - World History
The Trojan War and other adventures had kept Odysseus away from his home for many years. Penelope, his wife, remained faithful to her husband and displayed great courage and intelligence in preserving their household during her husband's long absence. On his return, Odysseus praised her for her excellence:
Madame, there is not a man in the wide world who could find fault with you. For your fame has reached heaven itself, like that of some perfect king, ruling a populous and mighty state with the fear of god in his heart, and upholding the right.
—The Odyssey, Homer, E. V. Rieu, trans., 1946
Homer, Greece's great eighth-century B.C. poet, wrote about heroes. Heroes like Odysseus and Penelope in Homer's Odyssey were expected to strive for excellence. Homer's writings identified the ideals that were valued by the Greek ruling class.
The Impact of Geography
Geography played an important role in the development of Greek civilization. Compared with Mesopotamia and Egypt, Greece occupies a small area. It consists of a mountainous peninsula and numerous islands that encompass about fifty thousand square miles of territory—about the size of the state of Louisiana.
The mountains and the sea played especially significant roles in the development of Greek history. Much of Greece consists of small plains and river valleys surrounded by high mountain ranges. The mountains isolated Greeks from one another, causing different Greek communities to develop their own ways of life. Over a period of time, these communities became fiercely independent. It is probable that the small size of these independent communities encouraged people to participate in political affairs. On the other hand, the rivalry between the communities led to warfare that devastated Greek society.
The sea also influenced the evolution of Greek society. Greece has a long seacoast dotted by bays and inlets that provided many harbors. The Greeks lived on a number of islands to the west, south, and east of the Greek mainland. It was no accident that the Greeks became seafarers. They sailed out into the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, making contact with the outside world. Later they established colonies that spread Greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean world.
The Minoan Civilization
By 2800 B.C., a Bronze Age civilization that used metals, especially bronze, in making weapons had been established on the large island of Crete, southeast of the Greek mainland. Called the Minoan civilization, it flourished between 2700 and 1450 B.C. Arthur Evans, the English archaeologist who first discovered the civilization, named it after Minos, the legendary king of Crete.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Evans discovered an enormous palace complex on Crete at Knossos (NAH•suhs). The remains of this complex revealed a rich culture, with Knossos as the center of a far-ranging sea empire based on trade. The ships of the Minoans took them to Egypt as well as southern Greece in search of goods.
The palace at Knossos, the royal seat of the kings, was an elaborate building that included numerous private living rooms for the royal family and workshops for making decorated vases, ivory figurines, and jewelry. Even bathrooms, with elaborate drains, formed part of the complex. The rooms were decorated with brightly colored paintings showing sporting events and nature scenes. Storerooms in the palace held gigantic jars of oil, wine, and grain, items that were paid as taxes to the king.
The centers of Minoan civilization on Crete suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse around 1450 B.C. Some historians believe that a tidal wave triggered by a powerful volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (THIHR•uh) was responsible for the devastation. Most historians, however, believe that the destruction was the result of invasion by mainland Greeks known as the Mycenaeans (MY•suh•NEE•uhnz).
The First Greek State: Mycenae
The term Mycenaean comes from Mycenae (my•SEE•nee), a fortified site in Greece that was first discovered by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. Mycenae was one of a number of centers in a Mycenaean Greek civilization that flourished between 1600 and 1100 B.C.
The Mycenaean Greeks were part of the Indo-European family of peoples who spread into southern and western Europe, India, and Iran. One of these groups entered Greece from the north around 1900 B.C. Over a period of time, this group managed to gain control of the Greek mainland and develop a civilization.
Mycenaean civilization, which reached its high point between 1400 and 1200 B.C., was made up of powerful monarchies. Each resided in a fortified palace center. Like Mycenae, these centers were built on hills and surrounded by gigantic stone walls. The various centers of power probably formed a loose alliance of independent states. While the royal families lived within the walls of these complexes, the civilian populations lived in scattered locations outside the walls. Among the noticeable features of these Mycenaean centers were the tombs where members of the royal families were buried. Known as tholos tombs, they were built into hillsides. An entryway led into a circular tomb chamber constructed of cut stone blocks in a domed shape that resembled a beehive in appearance.
The Mycenaeans were, above all, a warrior people who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle. Mycenaean wall murals often show war and hunting scenes, the natural occupations of a warrior aristocracy. Archaeological evidence also indicates that the Mycenaean monarchies developed an extensive commercial network. Mycenaean pottery has been found throughout the Mediterranean area, in Syria and Egypt to the east and Sicily and southern Italy to the west. But some historians believe that the Mycenaeans, led by Mycenae itself, also spread outward militarily, conquering Crete and making it part of the Mycenaean world. Some of the Aegean islands also fell subject to Mycenaean control.
The most famous of all their supposed military adventures has come down to us in the poetry of Homer. According to Homer, Mycenaean Greeks, led by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, sacked (plundered) the city of Troy on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor around 1250 B.C. Did this event really occur? Ever since the excavations of Schliemann, begun in 1870, scholars have debated this question. (Schliemann's discovery of Troy was featured in Chapter 1.) Many believe that Homer's account does have a basis in fact.
By the late thirteenth century B.C., Mycenaean Greece was showing signs of serious trouble. Mycenaean states fought one another, and major earthquakes caused widespread damage. In the twelfth century B.C., new waves of Greek-speaking invaders moved into Greece from the north. By 1100 B.C., Mycenaean civilization had collapsed.
The Greeks in a Dark Age
After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, Greece entered a difficult period in which the population declined and food production dropped. Historians call the period from approximately 1100 to 750 B.C. the Dark Age, because few records of what happened exist. Not until 850 B.C. did farming revive. At the same time, the basis for a new Greece was forming.
Developments of the Dark Age During the Dark Age, large numbers of Greeks left the mainland and sailed across the Aegean Sea to various islands. Many went to the western shores of Asia Minor, a strip of territory that came to be called Ionia (or Ionian Greece), which is in modern-day Turkey.
Two other major groups of Greeks settled in established parts of Greece. The Aeolian Greeks who were located in northern and central Greece colonized the large island of Lesbos and the territory near the mainland. The Dorians established themselves in southwestern Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, as well as on some of the southern Aegean islands, including Crete.
Other important activities occurred in this Dark Age as well. There was a revival of some trade and some economic activity besides agriculture. Iron replaced bronze in the construction of weapons, making them affordable for more people. Farming tools made of iron helped to reverse the decline in food production.
At some point in the eighth century B.C., the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a new system of writing. By reducing all words to a combination of twenty-four letters (both consonants and vowels), the Greeks made learning to read and write simpler. Near the very end of the Dark Age appeared the work of Homer, one of the truly great poets of all time.
Homer The Iliad and the Odyssey were the first great epic poems of early Greece. An epic poem is a long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero. The Iliad and the Odyssey were based on stories that had been passed from generation to generation.
Homer used stories of the Trojan War to compose the Iliad and the Odyssey. The war is caused by Paris, a prince of Troy. By kidnapping Helen, the wife of the king of the Greek state of Sparta, Paris outrages all the Greeks. Under the leadership of the Spartan king's brother, King Agamemnon, the Greeks attack Troy. Ten years later, the Greeks devise a plan to take the city. They trick the Trojans by building a huge hollow wooden horse. The best Mycenaean soldiers hide inside the horse, while the rest board their ships and pretend to sail away. The joyful Trojans, thinking themselves victorious, bring the gift horse into the city. That night, the Greeks creep out of the horse, slaughter the Trojan men, enslave the women and children, and burn the city to the ground. The Iliad is not so much the story of the war itself, however, as it is the tale of the Greek hero Achilles (uh•KIH•leez) and how the anger of Achilles led to disaster.
The Odyssey recounts the journeys of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus, after the fall of Troy, and his ultimate return to his wife. The Odyssey has long been considered Homer's other masterpiece. Some scholars believe that it was composed later than the Iliad.
Homer proved to be of great value to later Greeks. He did not so much record history; he created it. The Greeks looked on the Iliad and the Odyssey as true history and as the works of one poet, Homer. These masterpieces gave the Greeks an ideal past with a cast of heroes. The epics came to be used as basic texts for the education of generations of Greek males. As one ancient Athenian stated, "My father was anxious to see me develop into a good man . . . and as a means to this end he compelled me to memorize all of Homer."
The values Homer taught were courage and honor. A hero strives for excellence, which the Greeks called arete (ahr•ah•TEE). Arete is won in a struggle or contest. Through his willingness to fight, the hero protects his family and friends, preserves his own honor and that of his family, and earns his reputation. Homer gave to later generations of Greek males a model of heroism and honor. For example, in an exciting description of men marching to war, the Iliad taught students to be proud of their Greek heritage and their heroic ancestors.
Madame, there is not a man in the wide world who could find fault with you. For your fame has reached heaven itself, like that of some perfect king, ruling a populous and mighty state with the fear of god in his heart, and upholding the right.
—The Odyssey, Homer, E. V. Rieu, trans., 1946
Homer, Greece's great eighth-century B.C. poet, wrote about heroes. Heroes like Odysseus and Penelope in Homer's Odyssey were expected to strive for excellence. Homer's writings identified the ideals that were valued by the Greek ruling class.
The Impact of Geography
Geography played an important role in the development of Greek civilization. Compared with Mesopotamia and Egypt, Greece occupies a small area. It consists of a mountainous peninsula and numerous islands that encompass about fifty thousand square miles of territory—about the size of the state of Louisiana.
The mountains and the sea played especially significant roles in the development of Greek history. Much of Greece consists of small plains and river valleys surrounded by high mountain ranges. The mountains isolated Greeks from one another, causing different Greek communities to develop their own ways of life. Over a period of time, these communities became fiercely independent. It is probable that the small size of these independent communities encouraged people to participate in political affairs. On the other hand, the rivalry between the communities led to warfare that devastated Greek society.
The sea also influenced the evolution of Greek society. Greece has a long seacoast dotted by bays and inlets that provided many harbors. The Greeks lived on a number of islands to the west, south, and east of the Greek mainland. It was no accident that the Greeks became seafarers. They sailed out into the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Black Sea, making contact with the outside world. Later they established colonies that spread Greek civilization throughout the Mediterranean world.
The Minoan Civilization
By 2800 B.C., a Bronze Age civilization that used metals, especially bronze, in making weapons had been established on the large island of Crete, southeast of the Greek mainland. Called the Minoan civilization, it flourished between 2700 and 1450 B.C. Arthur Evans, the English archaeologist who first discovered the civilization, named it after Minos, the legendary king of Crete.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Evans discovered an enormous palace complex on Crete at Knossos (NAH•suhs). The remains of this complex revealed a rich culture, with Knossos as the center of a far-ranging sea empire based on trade. The ships of the Minoans took them to Egypt as well as southern Greece in search of goods.
The palace at Knossos, the royal seat of the kings, was an elaborate building that included numerous private living rooms for the royal family and workshops for making decorated vases, ivory figurines, and jewelry. Even bathrooms, with elaborate drains, formed part of the complex. The rooms were decorated with brightly colored paintings showing sporting events and nature scenes. Storerooms in the palace held gigantic jars of oil, wine, and grain, items that were paid as taxes to the king.
The centers of Minoan civilization on Crete suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse around 1450 B.C. Some historians believe that a tidal wave triggered by a powerful volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (THIHR•uh) was responsible for the devastation. Most historians, however, believe that the destruction was the result of invasion by mainland Greeks known as the Mycenaeans (MY•suh•NEE•uhnz).
The First Greek State: Mycenae
The term Mycenaean comes from Mycenae (my•SEE•nee), a fortified site in Greece that was first discovered by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. Mycenae was one of a number of centers in a Mycenaean Greek civilization that flourished between 1600 and 1100 B.C.
The Mycenaean Greeks were part of the Indo-European family of peoples who spread into southern and western Europe, India, and Iran. One of these groups entered Greece from the north around 1900 B.C. Over a period of time, this group managed to gain control of the Greek mainland and develop a civilization.
Mycenaean civilization, which reached its high point between 1400 and 1200 B.C., was made up of powerful monarchies. Each resided in a fortified palace center. Like Mycenae, these centers were built on hills and surrounded by gigantic stone walls. The various centers of power probably formed a loose alliance of independent states. While the royal families lived within the walls of these complexes, the civilian populations lived in scattered locations outside the walls. Among the noticeable features of these Mycenaean centers were the tombs where members of the royal families were buried. Known as tholos tombs, they were built into hillsides. An entryway led into a circular tomb chamber constructed of cut stone blocks in a domed shape that resembled a beehive in appearance.
The Mycenaeans were, above all, a warrior people who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle. Mycenaean wall murals often show war and hunting scenes, the natural occupations of a warrior aristocracy. Archaeological evidence also indicates that the Mycenaean monarchies developed an extensive commercial network. Mycenaean pottery has been found throughout the Mediterranean area, in Syria and Egypt to the east and Sicily and southern Italy to the west. But some historians believe that the Mycenaeans, led by Mycenae itself, also spread outward militarily, conquering Crete and making it part of the Mycenaean world. Some of the Aegean islands also fell subject to Mycenaean control.
The most famous of all their supposed military adventures has come down to us in the poetry of Homer. According to Homer, Mycenaean Greeks, led by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, sacked (plundered) the city of Troy on the northwestern coast of Asia Minor around 1250 B.C. Did this event really occur? Ever since the excavations of Schliemann, begun in 1870, scholars have debated this question. (Schliemann's discovery of Troy was featured in Chapter 1.) Many believe that Homer's account does have a basis in fact.
By the late thirteenth century B.C., Mycenaean Greece was showing signs of serious trouble. Mycenaean states fought one another, and major earthquakes caused widespread damage. In the twelfth century B.C., new waves of Greek-speaking invaders moved into Greece from the north. By 1100 B.C., Mycenaean civilization had collapsed.
The Greeks in a Dark Age
After the collapse of Mycenaean civilization, Greece entered a difficult period in which the population declined and food production dropped. Historians call the period from approximately 1100 to 750 B.C. the Dark Age, because few records of what happened exist. Not until 850 B.C. did farming revive. At the same time, the basis for a new Greece was forming.
Developments of the Dark Age During the Dark Age, large numbers of Greeks left the mainland and sailed across the Aegean Sea to various islands. Many went to the western shores of Asia Minor, a strip of territory that came to be called Ionia (or Ionian Greece), which is in modern-day Turkey.
Two other major groups of Greeks settled in established parts of Greece. The Aeolian Greeks who were located in northern and central Greece colonized the large island of Lesbos and the territory near the mainland. The Dorians established themselves in southwestern Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, as well as on some of the southern Aegean islands, including Crete.
Other important activities occurred in this Dark Age as well. There was a revival of some trade and some economic activity besides agriculture. Iron replaced bronze in the construction of weapons, making them affordable for more people. Farming tools made of iron helped to reverse the decline in food production.
At some point in the eighth century B.C., the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet to give themselves a new system of writing. By reducing all words to a combination of twenty-four letters (both consonants and vowels), the Greeks made learning to read and write simpler. Near the very end of the Dark Age appeared the work of Homer, one of the truly great poets of all time.
Homer The Iliad and the Odyssey were the first great epic poems of early Greece. An epic poem is a long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero. The Iliad and the Odyssey were based on stories that had been passed from generation to generation.
Homer used stories of the Trojan War to compose the Iliad and the Odyssey. The war is caused by Paris, a prince of Troy. By kidnapping Helen, the wife of the king of the Greek state of Sparta, Paris outrages all the Greeks. Under the leadership of the Spartan king's brother, King Agamemnon, the Greeks attack Troy. Ten years later, the Greeks devise a plan to take the city. They trick the Trojans by building a huge hollow wooden horse. The best Mycenaean soldiers hide inside the horse, while the rest board their ships and pretend to sail away. The joyful Trojans, thinking themselves victorious, bring the gift horse into the city. That night, the Greeks creep out of the horse, slaughter the Trojan men, enslave the women and children, and burn the city to the ground. The Iliad is not so much the story of the war itself, however, as it is the tale of the Greek hero Achilles (uh•KIH•leez) and how the anger of Achilles led to disaster.
The Odyssey recounts the journeys of one of the Greek heroes, Odysseus, after the fall of Troy, and his ultimate return to his wife. The Odyssey has long been considered Homer's other masterpiece. Some scholars believe that it was composed later than the Iliad.
Homer proved to be of great value to later Greeks. He did not so much record history; he created it. The Greeks looked on the Iliad and the Odyssey as true history and as the works of one poet, Homer. These masterpieces gave the Greeks an ideal past with a cast of heroes. The epics came to be used as basic texts for the education of generations of Greek males. As one ancient Athenian stated, "My father was anxious to see me develop into a good man . . . and as a means to this end he compelled me to memorize all of Homer."
The values Homer taught were courage and honor. A hero strives for excellence, which the Greeks called arete (ahr•ah•TEE). Arete is won in a struggle or contest. Through his willingness to fight, the hero protects his family and friends, preserves his own honor and that of his family, and earns his reputation. Homer gave to later generations of Greek males a model of heroism and honor. For example, in an exciting description of men marching to war, the Iliad taught students to be proud of their Greek heritage and their heroic ancestors.
Ancient Greece Questions
1. How did geography affect the development of Greece?
Early Greek Civilizations
Civilization Location Accomplishments
2.
3.
4. Describe the time period between 1100 - 750 BC. Why was it called the Dark Ages?
5. Define Epic Poem.
6. Name the famous Greek poet, whose work appears during the Dark Ages, and his two famous works.
7. Define Arete.
8. Define Polis.
9. Define Acropolis.
10. Define Agora.
Citizens of Greece
11. _____ with political rights.
12. _____ with no political rights.
13. _____ not citizens.
14. Define Hoplites.
15. Define Phalanx.
16. Define Democracy.
17. Define Oligarchy.
18. Define Helots.
Compare and Contrast
City-States of Athens and Sparta
Sparta Athens
Early Greek Civilizations
Civilization Location Accomplishments
2.
3.
4. Describe the time period between 1100 - 750 BC. Why was it called the Dark Ages?
5. Define Epic Poem.
6. Name the famous Greek poet, whose work appears during the Dark Ages, and his two famous works.
7. Define Arete.
8. Define Polis.
9. Define Acropolis.
10. Define Agora.
Citizens of Greece
11. _____ with political rights.
12. _____ with no political rights.
13. _____ not citizens.
14. Define Hoplites.
15. Define Phalanx.
16. Define Democracy.
17. Define Oligarchy.
18. Define Helots.
Compare and Contrast
City-States of Athens and Sparta
Sparta Athens
New Russia and Independent Republics and North Africa
1. Russia – Moscow
2. Kazakhstan – Astana
3. Uzbekistan – Tashkent
4. Kyrgyzstan – Bishkek
5. Tajikistan – Dushanbe
6. Turkmenistan – Ashkhabad
7. Azerbaijan – Baku
8. Georgia – Tbilisi
9. Armenia – Yerevan
10. Algeria – Algiers
11. Morocco – Rabat
12. Tunisia – Tunis
13 Egypt - Cairo
14. Libya – Tripoli
Quiz - 10-4-10
Sunday, September 26, 2010
Confucianism
Life and Times of Confucius
Confucius, who probably lived from 551 BCE-479 BCE, was most likely born in the state of Lu, now part of Shandong province, in China. The Chinese knew him by the name Kung Fu-tzu, which has been Latinized by Europeans to Confucius. Based upon the little evidence available, it is believed that Confucius was of good birth born into a family who had fallen upon hard times. According to legend, Confucius aspired to advise several rulers, but unsuccessful at this endeavor, became a teacher and moral exemplar.
Confucius lived during a critical time in Chinese history called the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) during which several states fought against each other in an attempt to expand their influence over what is now China. It was out of this period that the China known today emerged in the third century BCE under the unification of the Qin Empire. While several important schools of thought emerged at this time, the ideas developed by Confucius had lasting impact for China and the entire region.
After his death, varying successors and adherents contributed to the spread of the Confucian tradition. It is believed that his ideas were documented in writing by a successor known as Mencius. As with many great schools of thought, continued debate and discussion about Confucius’ ideas have kept his teachings alive.
What did Confucius believe?
Introduction
Confucianism is rooted in the belief that familial relationships are the foundation for society. The basis of the relationship between children and their parents is the concept of filial piety. Thismeans that children will demonstrate devotion and dedication to their parents in both thought and actions––beginning in childhood and lasting throughout adulthood. In addition, interactions within a family based on proper conventions and rituals (li) serves more than just the purpose of creating harmony within the family. Strong emphasis is placed on the role of the family for inculcating children in proper behavior to prepare them for life in a society that is based on hierarchy, respect, and education.
Education
Confucius’s teachings center on the importance of education in the formation of a person’s character. Confucius felt that education was paramount in the development of just leaders. Those shaped by an education that stressed moral behavior and those mentored by benevolent individuals would be best suited to rule.
Five Key Relationships
The teachings of Confucius advocated behavior that showed obedience and respect for superiors, be they elder family members, ancestors, or leaders. Confucius believed that humans are inherently social beings. Adherence to conventions or rituals (li) would ensure harmony.
Correct behavior within the framework of a set of relationships was necessary to advance harmonious interactions. The subordinate person was always to defer and learn from the superior person in the relationship.
At the same time, the superior person had a responsibility to act as a custodian for the subordinate person. This expectation extended from relationships among family members to leaders and their subjects. The 5 key relationships are listed in the table below:
Superior | Subordinate |
Ruler Husband Parent Elder brother Friend | Ruled Wife Child Younger brother Friend |
What role does Confucianism play today?
Confucius is one of the world's most influential philosophers. Today, his philosophy continues to influence large groups of people across Asia and throughout the world. Countries that show the most significant imprint of Confucianism are China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Confucianism manifests itself in the way children defer to their elders and parents (filial piety) and in the hierarchical structure within offices among employees of different ages and levels of experience. Confucianism also plays a role in the expectations people place upon government and upon its legitimacy.
Taoism
About The Tao Te Ching
The Tao Te Ching was written in China roughly 2,500 years ago at about the same time when Buddha expounded the Dharma in India and Pythagoras taught in Greece. The Tao Te Ching is probably the most influential Chinese book of all times. Its 81 chapters have been translated into English more times than any other Chinese document. The Tao Te Ching provides the basis for the philosophical school of Taoism, which is an important pillar of Chinese thought. Taoism teaches that there is one undivided truth at the root of all things. It literally means:
= tao (the way)
= te (strength/virtue)
= ching (scripture)
The verses of the Tao Te Ching are written in ancient Chinese, which is very different from
English. Abstraction and logic are not distinguishing marks of the ancient Chinese language, hence, it is less rigid than English and there are very few formal or grammatical structures. The classical Chinese word does not stand for a single concrete idea, but it evokes associations of different ideas and things. Quite a few Chinese words can be used as nouns, adjectives and verbs at the same time. Thus sentences composed of various signs have a sort of suggestive power, evoking emotions, ideas and pictures.
It is almost impossible to render an ancient Chinese text properly in English without losing some part. Different translations of the Tao Te Ching may appear as completely different texts. In order to understand the original text fully it is helpful to read various translations that consummate each other. The alternative is, of course, to learn Chinese. This document uses the translation of Gia Fu Feng and Jane English.
Not much is known about Lao Tzu, at least nothing that is certain. Some even doubt whether he is the author of the Tao Te Ching. However, his name became legendary with this writing, which also happens to be his only work.
Lao Tzu (his name is sometimes written Lao Tse or Lao Zi, and he is also known as Li Er and Lao Dan) was supposedly born in Honan on the 24th of March in the year 604 BC. His name means “old-young” and he has been called the “Old Master”.
Lao Tzu was very old, when he rode on a water buffalo to retire in the mountains to a province in the western frontiers. There he was approached by a border official named Guan Yin Zi, who urged the master to write down his teachings so that they might be passed on. Lao Tzu then retreated into the solitude of the mountain pass, wrote the Tao Te Ching, whereupon he went westward and was never seen again.
Yin And Yang
In Chinese philosophy, the rhythm of life, which pulsates through the universe, is the action of complementary principles Yin and Yang. The T’ai-chi T’u diagram (above) illustrates this principle. The symmetrical disposition of the dark Yin and the light Yang suggests cyclical changes.
Yin is the quiet, female, intuitive, receiving force that is associated with earth. The earth is the source of life; it provides us with what we need to survive. Yang is the strong, male, creative, giving force that is associated with heaven. The heaven above us is always in motion and brings about change.
When Yin reaches its climax, it recedes in favour of Yang, then after Yang reaches its climax it recedes in favour of Yin. This is the eternal cycle. The dots inside the white and black halves indicate that within each is the seed of the other. Yin cannot exist without Yang and vice versa.
The ideal state of things in the physical universe, as well as in the world of humans, is a state of harmony represented by the balance of Yin and Yang in body and mind.
Yin | Yang |
- Night, Dark - Rain, Water, Cold - Winter, Autumn - Odd Numbers - The Moon - North, West - Right, Down - Intuition - Passive, Static - Contraction - Decreasing - Conservative - Traditional - Valley - River - Curve - Soft - Solidifying - Psychological - Astral World - Tiger - Kidneys, Heart - Liver, Lungs | - Day, Light - Fire, Heat - Summer, Spring - Even Numbers - The Sun - South, East - Left, Up - Intellect - Active, Dynamic - Expansion - Increasing - Innovative - Reformative - Mountain - Desert - Straight Line - Hard - Dissolving - Physical - Visible World - Dragon - Bladder - Intestines, Skin |
1
The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao.
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
The nameless is the beginning of heaven and Earth.
The named is the mother of the ten thousand things.
Ever desireless, one can see the mystery.
Ever desiring, one sees the manifestations.
These two spring from the same source but differ in name; this appears as darkness.
Darkness within darkness.
The gate to all mystery.
2
Under heaven all can see beauty as beauty only because there is ugliness.
All can know good as good only because there is evil.
Therefore having and not having arise together.
Difficult and easy complement each other.
Long and short contrast each other:
High and low rest upon each other;
Voice and sound harmonize each other;
Front and back follow one another.
Therefore the sage goes about doing nothing, teaching no-talking.
The ten thousand things rise and fall without cease,
Creating, yet not possessing.
Working, yet not taking credit.
Work is done, then forgotten.
Therefore it lasts forever.
3
Not exalting the gifted prevents quarreling.
Not collecting treasures prevents stealing.
Not seeing desirable things prevents confusion of the heart.
The wise therefore rule by emptying hearts and stuffing bellies,
by weakening ambitions and strengthening bones.
If men lack knowledge and desire, then clever people will not try to interfere.
If nothing is done, then all will be well.
4
The Tao is an empty vessel; it is used, but never filled.
Oh, unfathomable source of ten thousand things!
Blunt the sharpness,
Untangle the knot,
Soften the glare,
Merge with dust.
Oh, hidden deep but ever present!
I do not know from whence it comes.
It is the forefather of the gods.
5
Heaven and Earth are impartial;
They see the ten thousand things as straw dogs.
The wise are impartial;
They see the people as straw dogs.
The space between heaven and Earth is like a bellows.
The shape changes but not the form;
The more it moves, the more it yields.
Chapter 4 Ancient Chinese Civilization
Section 1 Geographic and Cultural Influences
Peking man turns up as a fire-user about 600,000 years ago and Neanderthals traces in all three river valleys. It has been argued that people in China were clearing forests to make fields as far back as 10,000 BCE. The ground around the Yellow River shows evidence of agriculture from about 5,000 BC.
Over the centuries China has included Tibet, Xinjang, Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern Korea. China contains many climates and many regions. The north looks bare and dust-blown, scorching and arid, while the south is always green humid and used to floods. China proper includes three rivers: the Huang He, Chang Jiang, and Xi. It is isolated by mountains, deserts (Gobi Desert creates a barrier between northern China and southern Mongolia), great ranges, and plateaus from the civilizations of India and the west. Along the north and northwest nomadic and semi nomadic people who traded with Chinese at times attacked and were considered barbarians. A case can be made that the Chinese were probably the least influenced of all other Ancient civilizations.
The Huang He River (Yellow River) is prone to devastating and unpredictable floods, which led to its nickname “China’s Sorrow.” Farmers built dikes but that only slowed the rivers flow and deposited silt on the river floor, which caused the river to rise. The Chang Jiang River, or Yangtze River, (3rd largest in the world) cuts a deep channel through its valley and is navigable. The Xi River is also navigable making it commercially important.
China was regarded as the only civilized land and was called Zhongguo “Middle Kingdom” and even outsiders were absorbed into China’s population over time.
Section 2 The Shang Dynasty
In about 2200 BCE the legendary Xia Dynasty founded by Yu, who initiated flood-control projects, organized large-scale public works, and set up formal government, is said to have been the foundation of hereditary monarchial rule in China. Evidence has been discovered that indicate a society of people existed, who could have been Xia.
These people existed and developed improved methods of agriculture and may have used written symbols. They however could not control floods and didn’t know how to deal with droughts. About 1750 and 1500 BCE invaders called the Shang took control of the Huang He River valley. They introduced simple irrigation and flood-control systems which in turn allowed them to control the region’s people. The Shang established China’s first historic dynasty.
The Shang moved their capital several times (defensive or to avoid floods). They created a complex bureaucracy – a government organized into different levels and tasks. A hereditary king ruled. The army used chariots and bronze weapons. They gained territory and spread their culture.
The economy was based on agriculture (millet and rice) and domesticated animals: pigs, chicken, and horses. Shang Chinese knew how to raise silkworms. They spun thread from the silkworm’s cocoons and wove silk cloth from the thread. Artisans worked in bone, ivory, and jade. They made pottery and glazed it making it more durable. They used two calendars one based on the sun and the other on the moon. They added days to the lunar calendar to make up the 365 days in a year.
During the Shang people developed a belief in animism – the belief that spirits inhabit everything – and ancestor worship. Chinese worshipped the dragon, which became the symbol of Chinese rulers, and gods of the wind, sun, clouds, and moon. They held great religious festivals for plentiful harvests. They also believed in Shangdi, a great god who controlled human destiny. Chinese prayed to ancestors to intercede with the gods. Priests used to write questions on oracle bones and interpret them after heating the bone (early form of writing).
The Chinese of the Shang developed a written language at first these characters were pictographs, or drawings of objects. Later Chinese developed ideographs many of which consist of two parts – a signifier, or idea sign, and a phonetic sound sign. Each character had to be memorized and for many centuries the ability to read and write was limited to a small number of specialists (clerks, scribes, and teachers who generally served rulers.) They wrote characters in lines from top to bottom and beginning on the right side. Eventually writing became an art form: calligraphy.
About 1200 BCE herders settled along the borders of Shang China. During the 1100s BCE the Shang almost continuously battled these warlike neighboring states. Extended military efforts exhausted the Shang Dynasty. The last Shang king, Di-xin could not protect the kingdom’s northwest borders. In about 1050 BCE a people called Zhou (Joh) formed alliances with nearby tribes and overthrew the dynasty claiming Shang were unfit to rule.
Section 3 The Zhou, Qin, and Han Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty ruled from about 1050 BCE to about 256 BCE. Zhou granted territories to members of the royal family and allies. Rulers of each territory had to give military services and tribute to the Zhou kings. Zhou rulers believed that the god of Heaven determined who should rule China, known as the “Mandate of Heaven.” New dynasties claimed that the old dynasties lost the Mandate of Heaven.
Spring and Autumn Period (778 – 403 BCE) and Waring States Period (403 – 221 BCE)
By 700s BCE Zhou kings were losing control as local leaders fought among themselves. Also attacks from outsiders eventually destroyed the Zhou capital in 771 BCE, but they established a new capital. China enters a time of disunity where many independent states adopted Legalist philosophies as the basis for their rule from 403 to 221 BCE. As these states fought their resources were drained except for that of Qin because of their location on the western frontier of then China allowing them to emerge victorious.
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty came to power in 221 BCE. The ruler Cheng established a new dynasty and gave himself the title Shin Huang Ti, “first emperor.” The western name China is derived from Qin. Under this dynasty China was unified; measures, currency, laws, and language were standardized; roads and defensive walls were built. Later dynasties also built walls and refortified existing walls. (The Great Wall we see today was built during the Ming Dynasty) The capital was Ch’angan.
The king maintained power by establishing an autocracy (emperor held total power). Cheng suppressed and even executed scholars who criticized the government. Qin began building defensive walls along their borders made of compressed mud. Millions of people were forced to work on these public projects (palaces, walls, roads, and tomb). His harsh rule led to the discontent of the people which resulted in a revolt and Liu Bang, a Qin general, overthrew the empire and founded a new dynasty known as the Han.
Han Dynasty
Many Chinese today call themselves “People of Han” The Han Dynasty was the longest lasting Chinese dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE).
Early Han (206 BCE – 9 CE)
China’s borders expanded to include present day Manchuria, Korea, Southeast Asia (Vietnam). The Han ruled an area larger than the Roman Empire. Under Han rule a civil service system based on examinations was instituted and an imperial university to train people for government service is established.
The government begins to regulate prices to balance surpluses or shortages and enforcing laws. The government also exercised control over the building of public buildings and the production of iron, salt, and liquor. China experienced peace and trade prospered along the famous Silk Road, a trade route stretching from China across central Asia to the Mediterranean region where jade and silk were sold to wealthy Greeks and Romans returning to China with gold, silver, and wool. China’s population grew to about 50 million during this time.
China’s policy of expansion led to battles with nomadic Xiongme, but the Han conquered everyone they challenged. Han rule however is interrupted from within when the emperor is overthrown by a noble (9 – 24 CE)
Later Han (25 – 220 CE)
Though the imperial family regained power this period is marred with issues: land distribution, private armies, unrest, and economic decline. Taoist ideas of equal rights and equal land spread and peasants band which leads to the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Warlords take advantage and three are successful in controlling China ushering the Three Kingdoms Period.
Test - 9/28/10
Test - 9/28/10
China's one-child policy - success or failure?
24 September 2010 Last updated at 19:56 ET
China's one-child policy - success or failure? By Weiliang Nie BBC Chinese Service
During the period that I grew up in China in the 1960s and 70s, Chinese families could have as many children as they liked. Many had four or five children. Some even had six or seven.
My parents had four children. After the government started enforcing the rule of one child per family - often forcibly - my parents would sometimes jokingly remind me that I was an "exceeded quota person", meaning that under the one-child policy I would not have existed.
Chairman Mao, who led China from 1949 until his death in 1976, regarded a fast-growing population as a productive force necessary for China to become a great power.
He treated brutally those who dared to question him and believed that China should control its population.
His successor Deng Xiaoping started to reverse the trend.
He felt the tremendous drag China's huge population had on its fragile economic recovery after years of political turmoil.
On 25 September 1980, the Politburo of the Communist Party issued an "open letter" to all members of the party and the Communist youth league, urging them to take the lead in having only one child.
This is widely seen as the beginning of the controversial one-child policy.
The government claims that the policy has helped the country achieve 400 million fewer births during the past 30 years.
But this has come at a painful cost - keenly felt by my generation and those after us.
One of my childhood friends, who didn't want to reveal his name, has had to let his daughter, his second child, call him uncle in order to escape punishment for breaking the rule.
He says it breaks his heart every time he talks about his daughter, who is officially registered as someone else's child.
A female friend, like countless other young couples in China, had to pay a large fine for having a second child. But she believed the money was worth it.
Falling fertilityOfficials have repeatedly stressed that this "fundamental policy of the state", which has been credited with helping reduce the pressure of population growth on society and economic development, will continue.
But the government has already been challenged over whether the 400 million fewer births were entirely due to the implementation of this policy.
A team of independent Chinese and foreign academics completed what they said was the first systematic examination of the one-child policy three years ago.
They pointed out that the reduction was mainly due to a fall in the fertility rate (the number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime) in the 1970s when the government began to encourage delayed marriages, longer intervals between births and fewer children.
According to Professor Wang Feng of the University of California, who led the study, China's fertility rate was reduced from more than five to just over two before family planning policy was introduced in 1978.
The debate over whether the one-child policy is still needed was recently stirred up by a newspaper report about the little publicised case of Yicheng county, in the northern province of Shanxi.
Yicheng has been experimenting with a two-child policy for 25 years, said The Southern Weekend, a liberal newspaper based in the southern city of Guangzhou, close to Hong Kong.
Despite its more relaxed regulations, the county has a lower than average population growth rate, the report said.
After three decades, the drawbacks of the one-child policy are more and more apparent.
Even though China still has the largest population in the world, a report last month by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, a leading government think tank, said officials were seriously overestimating the fertility rate.
Instead of suppressing it, the report said the government should try to lift it. More and more people in China, largely in urban areas, prefer to have fewer children.
It is unclear when Beijing might end the one-child policy. But attention will be focused on an upcoming meeting of the party central committee next month.
It will finalise a five-year social and economic development plan, only the 12th since the Communist Party took power in 1949.
Clearly, the situation is becoming urgent. Already the country's population is ageing fast. The first children born under the one-child policy face the prospect of caring for an ever-increasing number of pensioners.
China also faces the daunting prospect of many men who can't find wives as many female foetuses have been aborted, resulting in a huge gender imbalance.
The clock is ticking.
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